The Psychology of the Resisters: What the Obedience Experiments Never Told

“Every crisis reveals something about human nature. The pandemic revealed something most of us were not prepared to see, about compliance, about conscience, and about the small minority who refused.”

Every obedience experiment in history had the same overlooked finding: Not everyone complied.

In Milgram’s laboratory at Yale in 1961, 65% of participants delivered what they believed were potentially lethal electric shocks to a stranger, simply because a man in a white coat told them to. The world remembered that number. It became the defining fact of the experiment. The evidence of how easily ordinary people could be led to do terrible things.

But 35% refused.

In Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments, 75% of participants denied obvious visual evidence at least once to match a unanimous wrong group. That number too became the headline. The proof of social pressure’s power.

But 25% never conformed. Not once, across any trial.

In Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment, the guards became cruel within days and the prisoners psychologically broke. That became the story, the terrifying demonstration of how quickly roles override character.

But at least one guard refused to dehumanize. And one prisoner did something even more remarkable: he demanded a lawyer instead of a doctor, breaking the psychological frame of the entire experiment by insisting on his identity outside the role the situation had assigned him.

We spent decades studying the ones who complied. We wrote the textbooks about them. We built the psychology curricula around them. We used their compliance as the lens through which we understood human nature under pressure.

We barely asked what made the others different.

That question matters more now than it ever has.

The COVID-Era Resisters Were Not Difficult to Find

They were everywhere, if you knew where to look.

Physicians who filed exemptions and lost their hospital privileges. Who prescribed early treatment protocols when the guidelines prohibited them. Who documented adverse events when the system made documentation slow, unrewarding, and professionally risky.

Nurses who walked away from careers they had spent decades building rather than administer what they could not administer with genuine informed consent. Who chose unemployment over the specific form of compliance that their conscience could not accommodate.

Scientists who published contrary data knowing exactly what it would cost them. Who submitted to the fourth journal after the third rejection. Who built independent communication channels when the institutional ones closed against them.

Parents who stood alone at school board meetings. Who read the primary literature on child Covid risk and refused to perform a fear they did not feel. Who absorbed the social judgment of their communities and kept showing up.

And ordinary people, the most important category of all, who simply said, quietly, without drama, without press coverage, without any particular reward: NO. Not as a political act. Not as ideological performance. As a private, specific, personal refusal grounded in something the system could not reach.

What made them different?

What the Research Actually Shows

The answer is not what most people expect.

It is not personality. The resisters were not uniformly bold, extroverted, or naturally confrontational. Many described themselves as conflict-avoidant. Many complied in other areas of their lives with no particular difficulty.

It is not political affiliation. The resisters came from across the ideological spectrum. The physician who refused the mandate was not always the one whose politics made refusal ideologically convenient. Some of the most principled resisters held views that made their resistance more personally costly, not less.

It is not superior intelligence or access to better information. The most educated populations in the most information-rich environments on earth complied at rates that should make everyone humble about the relationship between knowledge and conscience.

Research consistently identifies something different. A cluster of situational and cognitive patterns. Not traits you either have or don’t. Patterns that can be cultivated, practiced, and passed on.

The Four Factors That Held

First: Prior reflection on authority.

The resisters had usually thought, before the crisis, in the ordinary time when thinking was possible and the cost was low, about the limits of institutional trust.

They were not cynics. Cynicism is a passive position. It requires nothing and produces nothing.

They were people who had genuinely asked themselves, at some earlier point: under what conditions would I refuse? What would an institution have to ask of me before I said no? Where are my actual lines?

The person who has answered that question in advance arrives at the moment of institutional demand with something the unprepared person does not have. A pre-formed position. A decision already made in conditions of lower pressure that does not have to be constructed from scratch under the full weight of social and professional consequence.

The Milgram subjects who refused most readily were not more virtuous. They had simply thought about authority before they were inside the experiment.

Second: A concrete reference point outside the consensus.

Every resister who held had something the system could not reach.

For some it was a professional oath, the specific, written, historically grounded commitment to the patient’s wellbeing and genuine informed consent that existed independently of any employer, any guideline, any regulatory body.

For some it was a religious or philosophical conviction that located ultimate moral authority somewhere other than institutional endorsement.

For some it was a relationship, a specific person whose trust and respect mattered more than the approval of the consensus. A mentor. A patient. A child watching what they would choose.

For some it was simply a fact, a clinical observation, a data point, a piece of primary evidence, that they had read themselves, understood themselves, and could not unfind regardless of what the official narrative required them to believe.

The system is very good at replacing your external reference points with its own. At redefining what counts as evidence. At delegitimizing the sources you trusted. At making the fact you observed with your own eyes feel less real than the consensus that says it didn’t happen.

The resister had an anchor point the system could not move.

Identify yours now. Before you need it.

Third: at least one other person.

This finding from Milgram is so important it cannot be overstated.

When a single confederate in the experiment refused to continue, when one person visibly dissented from the unanimous pressure to comply, compliance rates dropped from 65% to 10%. Just one person.

The resisters of the Covid era were not, in the main, isolated individuals operating on pure individual conviction. They found each other. Through informal networks, through the early independent publications, through the quiet professional conversations that preceded any public visibility. Through Signal groups and private email chains and the specific relief of discovering that the person you thought was alone in seeing clearly had been looking for you too.

What they gave each other was not information, primarily. It was the one thing that social pressure most systematically removes: the confirmation that their perception was real. That what they were seeing was actually there. That they were not, as the consensus pressure was designed to make them feel, simply confused or misinformed or mentally unwell.

Permission. That is the word the resisters use most consistently. They gave each other permission to keep seeing what they were seeing.

You do not need a movement. You need one person. The right person, found before the pressure peaks. Build that relationship now.

Fourth: the willingness to tolerate social pain.

Not immunity to it. Not indifference to exclusion and judgment and the specific grief of watching relationships change because of what you would not pretend to believe. Tolerance.

The resisters felt the pressure. Every one of them. The family dinners that became arguments. The colleagues who stopped including them. The professional communities that closed. The specific loneliness of holding a position that the people around you had decided was not just wrong but dangerous.

They felt it and they kept going.

Not because they had found a way to make it not hurt. Because they had decided, at some level of consciousness that was more fundamental than the social pain, that the alternative hurt more.

The alternative was not comfort. It was moral injury. The specific, corrosive, long-accumulating damage of acting against your own ethical standards. Of looking back at the record of your choices and finding a person you did not choose to be.

The social pain of resistance is acute, visible, and time-limited.

The moral injury of complicity is chronic, hidden, and compounds across years.

The resisters had done the mathematics. Often without being able to articulate it explicitly. They had simply understood, somewhere below the level of verbal reasoning, that one of those costs was survivable and the other was not.

What We Missed: The Deeper Formation

These four factors are the surface structure of resistance. Beneath them is something that takes longer to build and matters more.

The resisters were not made in 2020. They were made decades earlier. In the specific early experiences that produce people capable of disagreeing with authority without destruction. In the books that gave them pattern literacy, the Bible, Jung, Solzhenitsyn, Arendt, Frankl, the history of institutional failure, before anyone was asking them to use it. In the small daily practices of honest disagreement that built the muscle before the weight became serious.

The childhood of the resister is recognizable. At least one adult who modelled principled disagreement. Permission to lose arguments and to win them. Some early experience of institutional error that established, without producing cynicism, that authority and truth are not the same thing.

The reading life of the resister is recognizable. Wide. Across traditions. Deeply historical. The kind of reading that produces what psychologists call integrative complexity, the capacity to hold multiple frameworks simultaneously and recognize a pattern across different contexts and different eras.

The linguistic practice of the resister is recognizable. Precise language. A refusal to adopt institutional vocabulary wholesale. The understanding that the word you accept carries the framework attached to it, and that the framework determines what you can think.

None of this is innate. All of it is transmissible.

The Forward-Looking Question

The most important contribution the resisters made was not their resistance.

It was the proof that resistance was possible.

In every major obedience and conformity experiment, the resisters demonstrated something that the study of the compliant majority could never establish: that the situation did not determine the outcome. That the psychological and structural forces producing compliance were powerful but not total. That conscience, under sufficient preparation, could hold.

That proof is not a comfort. It is a responsibility.

Because the mechanisms that produced compliance at the scale we witnessed are documented, replicable, and already being refined. The emergency authorization frameworks remain in place. The surveillance infrastructure has been maintained (and enhanced). The psychological techniques for fear amplification, consensus manufacture, and the systematic targeting of individual judgment have been recorded and will be studied.

The next test is already being designed.

The question is not whether it will come.

The question is who will be ready when it does.

The answer to that question is being built right now. In the children watching what the adults around them choose. In the medical students being trained, or not trained, to exercise independent clinical judgment under institutional pressure. In the slow, private, unspectacular daily choices that build or erode the capacity for independent conscience.

The resister is not born. They are built.

What to Build

Five things. Specific. Available now.

1. Read the history of institutional failure. Not to produce distrust but to produce calibration. Thalidomide. Tuskegee. The tobacco science. The suppression of lead’s neurological damage. The Vioxx scandal. The history of times when the expert consensus was wrong, captured, and costly — and the timeline on which it was corrected. This is not cynicism. It is the most practically useful knowledge available to anyone who will ever be asked to trust an institution.
2. Practice disagreement in low-stakes situations. Moral courage is a muscle. It is built by the small daily decisions — the minor expressed uncertainty, the gentle public correction, the private document that records what you actually observed — that cost something modest and strengthen the capacity for when the cost becomes serious.
3. Find your anchor point. The value, the principle, the person, the oath, the fact that exists independently of any institutional consensus and cannot be moved by social pressure. Name it explicitly. Write it down. Know what it is before you are inside the situation that will test it.
4. Build the network before you need it. The one person, or the small group, who shares the commitment to honest evaluation and will hold that commitment alongside you when the social cost of maintaining it becomes serious. Not a team defined by opposition. A community defined by the shared practice of genuine inquiry.
5. Teach all of this explicitly. To your children. To your students. To anyone you mentor or influence. Not as ideology but as psychological preparation. The naming of the mechanisms. The history of how they operate. The specific, cultivable patterns that allowed the 35% to hold when the 65% could not.

The Final Thing

Milgram, Asch, and Zimbardo did not teach us that human beings are weak.

They taught us something more precise and more useful.

That conscience, under sufficient situational pressure, requires active preparation to hold. That the person who has reflected on authority before the crisis, found an anchor outside the consensus, located one other person willing to hold their position alongside them, and practiced the tolerance of social pain, that person is not exceptional.

They are prepared.

And preparation is available to everyone reading this.

The experiment is always running.

The only question is whether you are building the conscience that can hold, or waiting to discover, under pressure, whether the one you have is enough.

Build it now.

Before the music starts again.

Kenny Carmody

You can read Kenny Carmody’s full substack post of this article at: https://kennycarmody.substack.com/p/the-psychology-of-the-resisters-what We would also recommend subscribing to Kenny’s excellent new substack at: https://substack.com/@kennycarmody